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The Deep Ocean



The deep ocean is one of the last unexplored frontiers on this planet.
The ocean is full of unexplored marine animals and terrifying creatures that are yet to be discovered.


Continental Slope

The continental drift is a long slope along the edge of a continent and into the ocean. As the stock of fish in the continental shelf is fast depleting in several parts of the world, fisheries have turned their attention to the continental shelf. Now that's a major cause of worry, as we know very little about species found in this part of the marine biome, and that, in turn, makes them vulnerable to overharvesting.

Together, the continental slope and continental rise account for about 8.5 percent of the ocean floor. Accounting for roughly about 28 percent of the total ocean floor, the continental margin comprises the continental shelf, continental slope, and the continental rise. The continental shelf starts at the shoreline and extends all the way to the shelf break. The continental rise―also characterized by a gradient, albeit gentle―lies partly on the continental crust and partly on the oceanic crust. It is, in fact, considered the transition zone between the two. In between the continental shelf and continental rise, lies the continental slope. .

❒ Though the average gradient of the continental slope is 4° (i.e., an average depth of 152 m per mile), there do exist regions where a gradient of up to 15° has been recorded. This is particularly the case at active margins. ❒ As in the case of continental shelf, the continental slope in the Pacific Ocean is steeper than the slope in the Atlantic. The Indian Ocean, in contrast, has the least steep continental slope. ❒ The continental slope can have a drop of up to 3,000 m (10,000 ft). Furthermore, if it descends into a deep-sea trench, it can have a drop of up to 10,000 m (33,000 ft). ❒ In the ocean, the temperature drops and pressure increases with depth. That explains why the water is so cold and the pressure is unusually high at the continental slope. ❒ The low light conditions in this part of the marine biome can be attributed to weak sunlight penetration, with most sunlight being either absorbed by the water at the surface or reflected back into the atmosphere. ❒ As a result of abiotic factors like cold water, pressure, and low light, very few lifeforms are found in this part of the marine biome. Unlike the continental shelf, the continental slope is devoid of vegetation and thus, doesn't attract many species.

At the bottom of the continental slope, one finds the continental rise, a geologic feature which is created through the very slow accumulation of sediments. Beyond the continental rise lies the abyssal plain, the extremely flat and very deep ocean floor. The continental rise is often used as an indicator by ships, since it indicates that the continental shelf, and land, are close by. The continental slope may be marked by deep valleys and folds in the ocean floor, caused by tectonic movement and underwater erosion from currents like those from major rivers. It is also studded with cold seeps, areas where gas escapes from the Earth's crust. Scientific study of cold seeps has revealed an assortment of organisms which have adapted to their unique conditions, demonstrating that life will find a niche in any environment. .

The Mid Ocean Ridge

The mid-ocean ridge is the world's longest mountain range, although it is submerged. It is a continuous ocean ridge that stretches through all the world's oceans, including the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Ocean. It exists along the boundary of tectonic plates. In fact, the only reason that the mid-ocean ridge exists is due to weaknesses in the Earth's crust at plate interfaces which permit volcanic activity. The volcanic activity generates magma, which cools to form this continuous submarine mountain range. Consisting of one continuous mountain range with four prominent branching ranges, the mid-ocean ridge has a continuous length of 40,400 mi (65,000 km). The total length of the system is 49,700 mi (80,000 km). The mid-ocean ridge has an average height of about a mile. Because it generally exists only in the darkest and deepest parts of the oceans, the mid-ocean ridge was not discovered until the 1950s. The first segment to be discovered was the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which remains the most famous portion of the mid-ocean ridge. At first, it was thought that a long continuous submerged mountain range was only an Atlantic phenomenon, until further surveys revealed portions of the ridge worldwide. Previously, the longest known mountain range in the world was the Andes mountains in South America, with a length of 4,400 miles (7,000 km). .

Now, scientists know that the mid-ocean range is continuously being formed by a phenomenon known as ocean spreading, where convective currents of magma in the mantle push volcanic material up through divergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Ocean spreading pushes the margins of oceanic tectonic plates beneath continental plates, a process known as continental subduction. The margins of these plates are subducted into the mantle, where they melt. Because of this process, the oceanic tectonic plates are all relatively young, under 100 million years in age. By radiocarbon dating different portions of exposed oceanic plate, we can determine the age of the plate and the magnitude and direction of spreading. .

Due to the slow flow of magma, eruptions are very rare, unlike the East-Pacific ridge. Iceland is a major part of the Mid-Atlantic ridge, and due to this it is home to many active volcanoes, which are known to cause problems in air travel all across northern Europe. One can usually find an above-water eruption once every five years, and even more in the submarine areas around the country. Recently, in August 2014, a series of eruptions started in the Bardarbunga volcanic system, which is releasing huge amounts of SO2 in the Icelandic atmosphere, and creating smooth and rough flowing lava structures. However, Iceland also enjoys many major advantages of this high rate of volcanic activity. The volcanic heat of the island means that most houses use natural geothermal heating. Also, the numerous hot springs in the country power hydroelectric power stations. These natural sources of energy enable Iceland to keep its pollution to extremely low levels. Besides being the source of several interesting ecosystems, the Mid-Atlantic ridge gives scientists an opportunity to study volcanic and tectonic activities, which can help prevent and warn humans about future natural calamities to a large extent. .

The Abyss

The mid-ocean ridge is the world's longest mountain range, although it is submerged. It is a continuous ocean ridge that stretches through all the world's oceans, including the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Ocean. It exists along the boundary of tectonic plates. In fact, the only reason that the mid-ocean ridge exists is due to weaknesses in the Earth's crust at plate interfaces which permit volcanic activity. The volcanic activity generates magma, which cools to form this continuous submarine mountain range. Consisting of one continuous mountain range with four prominent branching ranges, the mid-ocean ridge has a continuous length of 40,400 mi (65,000 km). The total length of the system is 49,700 mi (80,000 km). The mid-ocean ridge has an average height of about a mile. Because it generally exists only in the darkest and deepest parts of the oceans, the mid-ocean ridge was not discovered until the 1950s. The first segment to be discovered was the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which remains the most famous portion of the mid-ocean ridge. At first, it was thought that a long continuous submerged mountain range was only an Atlantic phenomenon, until further surveys revealed portions of the ridge worldwide. Previously, the longest known mountain range in the world was the Andes mountains in South America, with a length of 4,400 miles (7,000 km). .

Now, scientists know that the mid-ocean range is continuously being formed by a phenomenon known as ocean spreading, where convective currents of magma in the mantle push volcanic material up through divergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Ocean spreading pushes the margins of oceanic tectonic plates beneath continental plates, a process known as continental subduction. The margins of these plates are subducted into the mantle, where they melt. Because of this process, the oceanic tectonic plates are all relatively young, under 100 million years in age. By radiocarbon dating different portions of exposed oceanic plate, we can determine the age of the plate and the magnitude and direction of spreading. .

Due to the slow flow of magma, eruptions are very rare, unlike the East-Pacific ridge. Iceland is a major part of the Mid-Atlantic ridge, and due to this it is home to many active volcanoes, which are known to cause problems in air travel all across northern Europe. One can usually find an above-water eruption once every five years, and even more in the submarine areas around the country. Recently, in August 2014, a series of eruptions started in the Bardarbunga volcanic system, which is releasing huge amounts of SO2 in the Icelandic atmosphere, and creating smooth and rough flowing lava structures. However, Iceland also enjoys many major advantages of this high rate of volcanic activity. The volcanic heat of the island means that most houses use natural geothermal heating. Also, the numerous hot springs in the country power hydroelectric power stations. These natural sources of energy enable Iceland to keep its pollution to extremely low levels. Besides being the source of several interesting ecosystems, the Mid-Atlantic ridge gives scientists an opportunity to study volcanic and tectonic activities, which can help prevent and warn humans about future natural calamities to a large extent. .

Trenches

There are places deep beneath the waves of our planet's oceans that remain mysterious and almost unexplored. Some are so deep that their bottoms are as far away from us as the upper reaches of our atmosphere. These regions are called the deep ocean trenches and if they were on a continent, they'd be deep jagged canyons. These dark, once-mysterious canyons plunge down as far as 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) into our planet's crust. That's so deep that if Mount Everest were placed at the bottom of the deepest trench, its rocky peak would be 1.6 kilometers beneath the waves of the Pacific Ocean. Technically, tenches are long, narrow depressions on the seafloor. The harbor fantastic life forms not seen on the surface, animals and plants that thrive in the extreme conditions of the trenches. It has only been in the past few decades that humans could even consider venturing that deep to explore. .

Trenches are part of the seafloor topology that also contains volcanoes and mountain peaks higher than any on the continents. They form as a result of tectonic plate motions. The study of Earth science and tectonic plate motions, explains the factors in their formation, as well as the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that occur both underwater and on land. Deep layers of rock ride atop Earth's molten mantle layer. As they float along, these "plates" jostle up against each other. In many places around the planet, one plate dives under another. The boundary where they meet is where deep ocean trenches exist. For example, the Mariana Trench, which lies beneath the Pacific Ocean near the Mariana island chain and not far from the coast of Japan, is the product of what's called "subduction." Beneath the trench, the Eurasian plate is sliding over a smaller one called the Philippine Plate, which is sinking into the mantle and melting. That combination of sinking and melting formed the Mariana Trench. .

Surprisingly, despite the high water pressure and cold temperatures that exist at the bottoms of trenches, life does flourish in those extreme environments. It ranges from tiny one-celled organisms to tubeworms and other bottom-growing plants and animals, to some very strangel-looking fish. In addition, the bottoms of many trenches are filled with volcanic vents, called "black smokers". These continually vent lava, heat, and chemicals into the deep sea. Far from being inhospitable, however, these vents supply much-needed nutrients for types of life called "extremophiles", which can survive in the alien conditions. Future Exploration of Deep Sea Trenches Since the sea bottom in these regions remains largely underexplored, scientists are eager to find out what else is "down there." However, exploring the deep sea is expensive and difficult, even though the scientific and economic rewards are substantial. It's one thing to explore with robots, which will continue. But, human exploration (like Cameron's deep dive) is dangerous and costly. Future exploration will continue to rely (at least partially) on robotic probes, just as planetary scientists reply on them for the exploration of distant planets. There are many reasons to keep studying the ocean depths; they remain the least-probed of Earth's environments and they may contain resources that will help people's health as well as a deeper understanding of the seabeds. Continued studies will also help scientists understand the actions of plate tectonics, and also reveal new life forms making themselves at home in some of the most inhospitable environments on the planet. .

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